Field Trip Report to Jtmc Library

Field Trip Report to JTMC Library Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC), Pontian 14 March 2013 Introduction The purpose of this field trip is to look at existing conditions and facilities available at Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) library. Apart from that the trip was also intended to discuss possible improvements that can be suggested to the management of the library. Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) built on the site of the Rambah Village, Rimba Terjun Reuters in Pontian.It is one of the 13 Matriculation College under the auspices of the Matriculation Division, Ministry of Education to prepare students for further studies at any of the local universities and abroad. The college began operating on 11 May 2009, and can accommodate up to 700 students in certain time. The college is located near to the Pontian town and surrounded by large cities such as Batu Pahat and Johor Bahru. JTMC Library is a knowledge center which provides reference materials an d information for learning throughout the matriculation program.JTMC Library officially began operations on 1St January 2010 with a collection of 4,156 copies of the book. The mission is contributed to the excellence of knowledge in science and technology through improved access to sources of knowledge, access and distribution and spread accurate and effective info. Meanwhile, the vision is to be the superior knowledge center among technical matriculation by 2015. The motto of JMTC library is ‘Your Information Hub' and it has 4 main objectives which are provide information services to all library users.Secondly, effectively manage the library in line with the needs of teaching, learning, and development of JTMC. Then, promoting information services to citizens of JTMC and cultivate a culture of knowledge among JTMC citizens towards excellence in science and technology. Field observation Apart from collection storage center, resource center also plays a role in providing inform ation services package to support the process of learning and research at the Johor Technical Matriculation College. This is essential to achieve the mission of the college to provide the creative talent and innovative in the field of science and technology.Classification system that has been adopted is in accordance with the Dewey Decimal Classification System. Besides that, the library management use the system software Library Management System for borrowing process, returns, renewals and library databases. At this time JTMC Library led by the Director of Johor Technical Matriculation College which is Tuan Zaidi Bin Yazid and has the strength of 4 staff to lead the library operations. The JTMC Library consisting of Librarian, Administrative Assistant and have two Office Assistant.However, there is still a gap to fill the position of Assistant Library Officer and Assistant Librarian. Library operating hours on Monday to Friday is at 8 am to 5 pm on the day and 8. 30 pm to 11. 00 p m at the night. Meanwhile, during the weekends the library operating on the day only, which is from 10. 00 am to 5. 00 pm. Along with the development of technology resource center has also launched a digital collection consists of newspaper clippings, newsletters and abstract content review / article which can be accessed through the Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) portal.Throughout this observation, I can see some weakness of this library and have been thinking about some solutions to the problem. First, the number of staff during operating hours should be added and all the empty position should be filled. In addition, with the availability of adequate staff then the opening hours can be extended. Thirdly, books should be up to date and increase the number of reference books for critical subject. Then, library environment should be more interesting and ideal for carry out various college activities.Conclusion It is obvious that library plays a major role in ensuring st udent academic success. Therefore it is important for the library to provide the best service to satisfy customer needs. From my experiences Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) library can be one of the best library among other library when able to meet the demands of all users. APPENDICES [pic] Picture 1 : Main building of Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) [pic] Picture 2 : Main entrance of Johor Technical Matriculation College (JTMC) Library

Minimum Legal Drinking Age Essay

Do you believe the drinking age should be lowered to allow eighteen year olds to consume alcohol, or should the legal age to drink alcoholic beverages stay at the age of twenty-one? Prior to 1984 you were, once you turned eighteen, in most states permitted to purchase alcohol. It was completely up to the state government. At age 18 they are legally an adult, and can therefore abide by their own rules and if they make a bad decision they have to pay the price. Why is it that as an adult you are permitted to purchase rifles, tobacco products, you can vote, enlist in the military, go to a casino, get a tattoo, body piercings, get married and even work in a bar but you can’t buy or consume alcohol? When you think of alcohol and eighteen year-olds what generally pops into mind is underage drinking, binge drinking, wild parties and date rape. But that is only the view of the irresponsible side of drinking, just as there is an irresponsible side of drinking at age twenty-one. At age eighteen you should be allowed to purchase or consume alcohol as you please, because you are legally an adult and responsible for your own actions. The Minimum Legal Drinking Age should be lowered to age eighteen. When you turn eighteen in the United States of America you are legally considered an adult. Until the 1984 Minimum Legal Drinking Age act you were allowed (at least in some states) to buy alcohol when you wanted. Subsequently to the passing of that law every state was forced to raise their minimum age to twenty-one. One of the men who voted for the 1984 Minimum Legal Drinking Age act, Morris E. Chafetz, stated that he â€Å"voted for it; it doesn’t work† and goes on to say that â€Å"it is the single most regrettable decision of my entire professional career†: â€Å"The reality is that at age 18 in this country, one is a legal adult. Young people view 21 as utterly arbitrary- which it is. And because the explanation given is so condescending- because they lack maturity and judgment, these same people who can serve on juries and sign contracts and who turned out in overwhelming numbers to elect our first black president- well they dont buy it. And neither do I.† (Chafetz 554-555) The Unites States military is one of the largest in the world, and has many bases and various stations throughout the entire world. At the age of 18 you must (if you are male) sign up for selective service (the draft) and you are eligible to enlist in the military regardless of your gender. Why is it that you can deploy to another country, fight for your country, get shot, lose limbs and have the memories of that with you for the rest of your life, but you can’t purchase alcohol? If you are old enough to risk your life to fight for your country and fight for the freedoms of this country then you should be able to go buy a beer at the bar with your buddies. Jeff Rainforth, a man who ran for congress, said that â€Å"Since the age was raised, many young adults have drunk more abusively than in the past. Like national Prohibition, it was been counter-productive. Raising the drinking age brought about more problems than it solved.† and went on to say that he recommends that is the legal drinking age was not lowered he recommends that military members can not go to combat until age 21. John McCardell, who founded and is now the director of an organization that exists to lower the drinking age back to eighteen, and also started the â€Å"Amethyst Initiative† talks about his solution to the problem. McCardell has credibility on this topic due to the fact that he is a former college professor and president, and is now a vice-chancellor at the University of the South, who has personally seen the way teenagers on a college campus drink and has an idea what will help with this issue. He says â€Å"Alcohol education is what we need.† This would make teenagers aware of the harms of drinking alcohol and reduce the amount of binge drinking that goes on. Lowering the drinking age would teach teenagers moderation. If they are drinking in a controlled setting where they are allowed to drink and don’t have to hide it, they will be more likely to casually drink. McCardell says that the 1984 Minimum Legal Drinking Age law was â€Å"an abysmal failure; it hasn’t reduced or eliminated drinking, it simply driven it underground, behind closed doors, into the most risky and least manageable of settings.† In the â€Å"60 minutes† interview with CBS, the Boulder, Colorado Chief of Police, Mark Beckner is also an advocate for lowering the drinking age to eighteen. He says that â€Å"we can’t stop it. The best we can do is try to contain it.† According to the 2010 National Survey on Drug use and Health, driving under the influence of alcohol was associated with age. The age group with the highest number of infractions(including wrecks) was the twenty-one to twenty-five year-old group at 23.4% of infractions being drunk/having been drinking as opposed to only 15.1% in the eighteen-twenty year-old group and a mere 5.8% in sixteen and seventeen year-olds. As far as fatal crashes go, the highest percent of drunk drivers that were involved in a fatal car crash was the group of 21-24 year olds. 25-34 year olds came in at 30%, 35-44 at 24% and all fatal car crashes of individuals that were above age 44 and below age 21 was only 14%. Driving under the influence of alcohol was associated with age in 2010. The rate was highest among persons aged 21 to 25 (23.4 percent). An estimated 5.8 percent of 16 or 17 year olds and 15.1 percent of 18 to 20 year olds reported driving under the influence of alcohol in the past year. Beyond age 25, these rates showed a general decline with increasing age. Many other western have long had a much more lenient attitude toward alcohol and alcoholic beverages. Many have set their Minimum Legal Drinking Age at 18, some at 16 and some do not even have a Minimum Legal Drinking Age. In many countries, such as Germany, there are very few drunk driving incidents whatsoever. In these countries parents often consume alcoholic beverages with their children, including beer or wine(in countries like France). By the time Europeans are allowed to drive they have been educated on the effects of alcohol and have been consuming alcohol for several years. Safe alcohol consumption should the same way as safe sex practices and drivers education classes. No one us naà ¯ve enough to think that teenagers will practice abstinence to avoid sexual encounters only in order to avoid a sexually transmitted disease, so why are people foolish enough to believe that teens will avoid alcohol just due to it’s dangers? Lowering the Minimum Legal Drinking Age will cause the teens who drink to rebel against their authorities to not drink as much due to it not being rebellious. Until a solution is agreed upon about whether the drinking age should be lowered, or stay at the age of 21, this will remain a controversial topic. Using these strategies in this essay works well to effectively persuade every single viewer that underage drinking is in fact a problem, and is attributed to the current law not allowing people to buy or consume alcohol under the age of 21. Because of the problems that are created because of this current law, it would be in this country’s best interest to lower the drinking age. This would prevent an increased number of alcohol related deaths due to underage binge drinking in the future. These are just a few of the reasons that the Minimum Legal Drinking Age act of 1984 should be repealed and the Minimum Legal Drinking Age should be at age 18. Works Cited Chafetz, Morris E. â€Å"The 21-Year-Old Drinking Age: I Voted For It; It Doesn’t Work.† Good Reasons With Contemporary Arguments. Eds. Lester Faigley and Jack Selzer. Boston: Longman, 2012. 554-555. Print McCardell, John. â€Å"A Drinking Age of 21 Doesn’t Work.† Good Reasons With Contemporary Arguments. Eds. Lester Faigley and Jack Selzer. Boston: Longman, 2012. 550-553. Print. â€Å"Issue in Focus: Drinking on College Campuses.† Good Reasons With Contemporary Arguments. Eds. Lester Faigley and Jack Selzer. Boston: Longman, 2012. 548-550. Print. CBSNews. (2010, March 01). The debate on lowering the drinking age. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-18560_162-4813571.html-

Management Accounting Assignment Research Paper

Management Accounting Assignment - Research Paper Example If this is done then we would split the  £32,000 administrative costs between the two. This scenario could also lead to more costs based on how much an employee costs in these areas compared with the costs in Nottingham. If the costs in Nottingham are lower than Leicester and Loughborough then the administrative costs would be much higher. Closing a division would mean firing employees and this might not make the company look too good. If we close the division and outsource the raspberry jam then we would be paying  £20.6 for each batch and our profit would be  £11.4 per batch. If we still sold 6250 batches then our total profit would be  £71,250. We would save the costs of fruit, sugar, labour, variable costs, and some overhead. This could equal up to  £109,000 in savings and could lead to some significant profit. We could then use this profit for other things or even for expanding the other two products. Advertising would create more customer awareness and possibly increase the demand for the product. The first thing we would need to consider would be how much we will be spending on this campaign. We do not want to overspend and receive nothing in return. If we have a decent budget for the advertising campaign we can then choose where best to spend our money. We would also need to decide how to advertise. We could use the papers, magazines, radio, or even television. Of course television is the most expensive of the choices but might be the one that reaches the most people. If we could put together a good campaign then we would need to make sure that we increase the demand by enough to cover the campaign. It would be very difficult to figure out how much our sales would increase and if we are unable to predict how much sales would increase then we would have a hard time predicting how much our distribution costs will change. Even if the campaign increased

Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence - Essay Example He went on to analyze biographical dictionaries and encyclopedias, and became convinced that talent in science, the professions, and the arts, ran in families. This suggestion became know as eugenics, "the study of the agencies under social control that may improve or repair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally." Galton wanted to speed up the process of natural selection, stating that: "What Nature does blindly, slowly, and ruthlessly, man may do providently, quickly, and kindly". Galton was convinced that "intelligence must be bred, not trained". Such arguments have had massive social consequences and have been used to support apartheid policies, sterilization programs, and other acts of withholding basic human rights from minority groups. In the heyday of eugenic IQ testing in the 1920s there was no evidence for the heritability of IQ. It was just an assumption of the practitioners. Today that is no longer the case. The heritability of IQ (whatever IQ is!) is now a hypothesis that has been tested - on twins and adoptees. The results really are quite startling. No study of the causes of intelligence has failed to find a certain and often substantial heritability. What varies from study to study is the amount that can be attributed to heritability. Evidence in favour of "nurture" "Give me a dozen healthy infants & my own specific world to bring them up in, & I'll guarantee to take any one at random & train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chef & yes, even beggar & thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." - John B. Watson, 1924 This was a famous quote in the heyday of behaviorism, when the child was considered to be a 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) onto which anything could be sculpted through environmental experience. This would be a 100% environmental view, but virtually no psychologists would accept such an extreme position today. So, what can we say about nature vs. nurture as causal determinants of intelligence A conservative, seemly safe position is that: "In the field of intelligence, there are three facts about the transmission of intelligence that virtually everyone seems to accept: 1. Both heredity and environment contribute to intelligence. 2. Heredity and environment interact in various ways. 3. Extremely poor as well as highly enriched environments can interfere with the realization of a person's intelligence, regardless of the person's heredity" (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997, p.xi). 4. Although most would accept a causal role of genetics, the exact genetic link and how it operates is very far from being understood - another point that most psychologists would agree on. It is certainly not a single gene, but a complex

Joining and Fastening Processes (Manufacturing Engineering Processes) Term Paper

Joining and Fastening Processes (Manufacturing Engineering Processes) - Term Paper Example These engineering materials in their raw form are extracted from their ores. These raw materials from ores are transformed into molten form through refining and reducing processes. The molten material is process through molds to produce commercial or industrial castings called ingots. These ingots are then processed through rolling to transform these into billets, rods and slabs suitable for marketing. These materials then undergo various manufacturing processes to obtain useful products in diverse range of sizes, shapes and forms desired by end user. According to Singh, these manufacturing processes are classified into six major categories: primary shaping processes, secondary shaping processes, metal forming processes, joining and fastening processes, surface finishing processes and processes to change characteristics and properties of materials (17). In this report, we would be focusing on joining and fastening processes required to assemble or join different parts of a product. T he process where two or more parts of the product are put together to achieve desired shape and function is called assembly, not to be confused with joining and fastening processes. In joining, different parts of the product are joined together to obtained desired function. ... A unique advantage of this process is the focus of heat in welding area ensuring less spread of heat thus reducing welding defect like warping and buckling. In addition, this concentration of heat increases the depth of welding and increases the welding speed of the process. Arc welding process consists of a heat source, shielding and a filler metal. The heat is produced through the electrical arcing between the two metals under contact (Zeilke 4). The power source is referred to as welding machine which may be electrical or mechanical. Shielding gas, fluxes or coatings are used to prevent the welding area from surroundings during the welding process. Generally, arc welding is divided into ten main types called Carbon Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding, Stud Arc Welding, Gas Metal Arc Welding, Electro-slag Welding, Plasma Arc Welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Atomic Hydrogen Welding, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and Electro-gas Welding. In Carbon Arc Welding, a pure graphite rod is us ed as non-consumable electrode to generate arc for producing heat. The welding can be made without or with introduction of filler metal. It can be further classified as single or twin carbon electrode welding. In Shielded Metal Arc Welding, a flux coated electrode is used to produce arc where the flux on the coated electrode fads off due to heat. In Submerged Arc Welding Process, a bare electrode is used as consumable electrode with flux feeder tube. The arc, electrode and molten pool remain submerged under granular flux to achieve homogenous welding across the structure. In Tungsten Arc Welding, a tungsten electrode as non-consumable electrode covered by shielding of an inert gas to prevent these from surroundings is used for welding.

What is Good Death (Meaningful Death) Meant to Christianity Essay

What is Good Death (Meaningful Death) Meant to Christianity - Essay Example Job’s friend, Bildad, typified death as the â€Å"lord of terrors† (Jackson 1). The writer of Hebrews, on the other hand, spoke of those who, through the fear of death, were, throughout their existence, put through bondage and oppression. Though few of us might attain that high peak of faith, where we can say like Apostle Paul that we desire to die, surely with the clarification of the New Testament exposure, we can encounter the mysteries of death with calmer spirits. This paper will discuss what a good death is meant to a Christian. It will dwell on factors such as organ donation, after life and how to live for a meaningful death as a Christian. Death refers to the state of sleeping. The New Testament talks about dead people as those that have fallen asleep in Jesus (Jackson 1). The phrase â€Å"sleep† is utilized in the Scriptures to explain the state of the human body in death. The book of Daniel reveals that only the body of man slumbers in death. Here, it i s certain that the fraction of man, which is laid in the dust of the soil, is that which sleeps. However, it is the human’s body, which is laid into the ground. Therefore, it is the human body, which sleeps in death, not the spirit (Sheehan 34). In the New Covenant, the phrase â€Å"asleep† is said to originate from the Greek word (koimaomai), which is also from keimai, plainly signifying â€Å"to lie down† (Sheehan 34). ... The Bible also sensibly speaks of the rotting of the human body (Sheehan 34). When Adam and Eve committed their sin, the tree of life was taken away from them and; thus, physical immortality. Death is, hence, man’s lot to go back to the dust of the ground. Paul talks about the earthly home of our tabernacle being â€Å"dissolved† or shuttered by death (Jackson 1). The Greek phrase for â€Å"dissolved† is kataluo, accurately signifying to â€Å"loose down,† a clear expression for fleshly decomposition. It is distressing that others decline to acknowledge the fate or destiny of the body, using huge sums of money trying to preserve their mortal remains in anticipation of resuscitation. Regardless of the claims to the opposite, physical immortality will never be attained by the medical profession (Jackson 1). In this age of fast growing health care technology, on a day-to-day, basis Christian nurses are faced with vital issues, which result in questions and un certainty regarding the relationship between Christian ethics, as well as modern medicine. This exercise of organ donation, in addition to transplantation, is one such medical development (Howard 15). Following the first victorious organ transplant, in 1954, the matters circulating this practice have become more and more complicated. Apparently, many people promptly accept the notion that receiving or donating organs is ethically permissible. With regards to Christianity, sacrifice and assisting others are key themes, and; thus, a choice to donate organs is perceived as a constructive thing. Christians should be confident to assist others in need (Howard 16). They see organ donation as an act of love and care to the receiver. It is also a way of

Enzymes Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Enzymes - Lab Report Example Following addition of iodine to a solution of glucose, the only color observed was red or yellow (iodine color). Therefore, the faster the blue color is lost, the faster the enzyme amylase activity. The enzyme amylase can’t hydrolyze starch if it is inactivated, so the starch-iodine complex blue color will persist. The presence of glucose in the samples was tested using Benedict’s reagent. When blue solution of Benedict’s reagent is added to a glucose solution the color changes to green (at low concentrations of glucose) or reddish-orange (at higher concentrations of glucose). Starch can’t react with Benedict’s reagent, therefore the solution remains blue. The aim of the experiment was to look at how enzyme amylase activity is affected by pH, temperature and concentration of the enzyme. Introduction Enzymes are proteins in nature; they are catalysts for biological reactions. Like all catalysts, they speed up reactions by lowering the reactionâ€℠¢s activation energy without themselves being used up. Enzymes catalyze all biochemical reactions. They can be denatured in a variety of ways since they are proteins in nature, Therefore they work optimally under mild conditions. At body temperature and at a neutral pH, most of them have optimum activity. Enzymes also are known to be very specific; they act only on a specific substrate or one type of similar substrate molecules. This is because the enzyme active site is complementary to the polarity and shape of the substrate. Only one kind of substrate will â€Å"fit† into the active site. (Abu et al, 2005) Methods and Materials Preparation: Water baths of constant, low and high temperature were used in the experiment. A large water bath was set to 37 °C.For low temperature bath, a 250-mL beaker, was half filled with tap water, and some ice was added to the water to attain between 0 and 5 °C temperature. High temperature water bath was made by filling a 250-mL beaker to two-thirds full then heated to boil. The temperature of the bath was close to 100 °C. 1% starch solution was used for every experiment part. Iodine reagent for each experiment was also used. Commercial amylase solution, clean droppers and a white spot plate were also needed in the experiment. For starch testing, few drops of starch were transferred to one well of the spot plate. One iodine reagent drop was added. Iodine and Starch was reacted to form a deep blue-black complex. For glucose testing, 1% glucose solution of 3 ml was added in a test tube. 2 ml of Benedict’s solution was added and heated in a boiling water bath for 3-4 minutes. The reaction formed a red-orange solid. Experiment 1: Effect of Enzyme Concentration Five test tubes were labeled as 1-5. 4 ml of 1 % starch was placed in every first four test tubes. 4 ml of amylase solution was placed in the fifth tube. All of the tubes were placed in water bath (37 °C) for 5 minutes. 5 clean droppers were obtained the n labeled from 1 to 5.Separate dropper were used for each mixture to avoid contamination. Tube 1 was the control and it never had any enzyme. The tubes were momentarily removed from the water bath and quickly 3 drops of the warmed amylase solution was added to tube 2, to tube 3, 6 drops of amylase was added and in tube 4, 10 drops of amylase was added. The tubes were mixed quickly by shaking gently then later put immediately back into 37 °C water bath. The time at which the enzyme was added was

Deathand loss Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Deathand loss - Essay Example However, when we loss someone dear to us, we are emotionally destructed and lonesome. I lost a friend of mine when I was in middle school and later on, after college, I lost my grand mom. Losing a friend who was so dear and near was a tragic loss and I was very grieved. I tried a lot to handle my grief, but every time when I tried to shut my eyes, she came there in front of me. For many nights, I was unable to sleep. I was not very old to understand the truth and settle my emotions easily, but after all my grief and sadness, I started living a normal life. I was very much frightened of death and thought that death was something very horrible that was able enough to snatch our beloved people from us. Later on, when I lost my grandmother, I was again in a shocking state. I pondered too much over death and the feeling of loss and after all that pondering and disturbance, I started remaining busy with my studies and other home based chores in order to get rid of those terrible feelings of loss. I was too much scared and feared death. I was just unable to understand whate ver was happening around me. However, with the passage of time, I realized that life goes on in this manner. Now, I am quite aware that death is a reality that has the ability to take from us whom we love. When people die, they leave us, but there are also people who leave us without dying. Their leaving us permanently also can be understood as death of those people in our lives. I remained with my single mother and my father had left us. I regard his leaving us as a loss, which we were required to cop up with. It took some time, but it was all over. There were a number of losses that I underwent in my lifetime, but these losses made me strong enough to handle everything alone. Now, I am not afraid or fearful of being alone. I consider myself strong enough to endure anything that comes in my way. The losses that we bear in our life make us courageous and

Marketing Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Marketing Plan - Research Paper Example When different business enterprises target the same markets within a given industry, competition intensifies. This is the scenario observed in the coffee houses industry. While players are many in number, the target market is relatively the same. As a result, each coffee house must move swiftly and strategically to lure consumers into buying its products, thereby building a market share within the industry. Depending on how the captured market share is managed, it can increase or decrease with time. Tim’s Coffee Shoppe competes intensively with Queequeg’s Coffee among other coffee houses. The above aspects apply to Tim’s Coffee Shoppe operations in the coffee houses industry. Tim’s Coffee Shoppe has to manage its clientele in a way that ensures Queequeg’s Coffee or any other coffee house does not win it through competitive practices. This implies that coffee houses operating in the same industry engage one another in intensive competition that could see one lose its customers to another based on the customer satisfaction factor. The 4 P’s of marketing inform the marketing practices of many business enterprises across the globe (Pride & Ferrell, 2012). Tim’s Coffee Shoppe operates in a highly competitive environment, where players are many and competition cannot be price-based only. To ensure that Tim’s Coffee Shoppe remains competitive over its rivals, the adopted marketing strategy must critically account for the 4 P’s of marketing. The surveys presented in the filing cabinet highlight the operational strengths and weaknesses of Tim’s Coffee Shoppe. The 4 P’s of marketing can strategically be applied to the survey information for the purpose of redesigning and revolutionizing the Tim’s marketing strategy. The product is highly rated by majority of customers. However, the shortcomings noted by a few should be used to enhance

Computer History and Development Essay Example for Free

Computer History and Development Essay The dictionary defines a computer as an electronic device for storing and processing data, typically in binary form, according to instructions given to it in a variable program. Primarily created to compute; however, modern day computers do much more today: supermarket scanners calculate consumers groceries bill, while keeping track of store inventory; computerized telephone switching centers play traffic cop to millions of calls, keeping lines of communication untangled; and automatic teller machines let’s banking transactions to be conducted from virtually anywhere in the world. Technology has been around for a centuries; growing rapidly year by year. One of the most important items Technology has produced is computers. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer also known as ENIAC was regarded as the first general purpose electronic computer. What came before the ENIAC; well, there is the abacas which some consider the first computer. Created over 5000 years ago in Asia and is still in use today. Using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack, users are allowed to make computations. In early times, the abaca was used to keep trading transactions; until, this became obsolete with the introduction of pencil and paper. Within the next twelve centuries emerged a significant advancement in computer technology. The year was 1642, when Blaise Pascal, the 18 year-old son of a French tax collector, invented the numerical wheel calculator, also known as the â€Å"Pascaline. † Pascaline was a brass rectangular box that used eight movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. This device was great and became popular in Europe; the only drawback was the limits to addition (Pascals calculator, 2010, para. ). Another event that epitomizes the Pascaline machine came from an inventor by the name of Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz; a German mathematician and philosopher in the 1600’s. Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz added to Pascline by creating a machine that could also multiply. Like its predecessor, Leibnizs mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials. Original notes and drawings from the Pascline machine were used to help refine his machine. The core of the machine was its stepped-drum gear design. However, mechanical calculators did not gain widespread use until the early 1800’s. Shortly after, a Frenchman, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar invented a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic functions. The arithometer, Colmars mechanical calculator, presented a more practical approach to computing because it could add, subtract, multiply and divide. The arithometer was widely used up until the First World War. Although later inventors refined Colmars calculator, together with fellow inventors Pascal and Leibniz, he helped define the age of mechanical computation. The real beginnings of computers that we use today came in the late 1700’s, thanks to Charles Babbage with the invention of the Analytical Engine. Babbage machine was a steam powered machine; although, it was never constructed it outlined basic elements of a modern general computer. Several more inventors added to machines that were out in the late 1800’s to help pave the way for the first generation of computers (1945-1956) (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 4). Wars had a great deal in the advancement of modern computers; the Second World War governments sought out to develop computers to exploit potential strategic importance. Therefore, in 1941 a German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed the Z3. The Z3 was created to design airplanes and missiles (Computer History Museum Timeline of Computer History, 2010, para. 3). Another computer that was created for war times was the ENIAC, first commissioned for the use in World War II, but not completed until one year after the war had ended. It was installed at the University of Pennsylvania, with a partnership alongside the U. S. government, its 40 separate eight-foot-high racks and 18,000 vacuum tubes were intended to help calculate ballistic trajectories. There was also 70,000 resistors and more than 4 million soldered joints; truly a massive piece of machinery that consumed around 160 kilowatts of electrical power. This is enough energy to dim the lights in an entire section of Philadelphia. This computer was a major development with speeds 1000 times faster than the current Mark I. For the next 40 years John von Neumann along with the University of Pennsylvania team kept on initiating new concepts into the computer design. With the combined genius of all the personnel they continued with new products such as the central processing unit (CPU) and also the UNIVAC. The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of the CPU. This helped out the U. S. Census bureau. First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computers were to be used. Computers had different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes, which were known for their breathtaking size, and magnetic drums for data storage (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 10). The second generation of computers, from 1956-1963, began the age of smaller computers. With the invention of the transistor in 1948, bulky vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers were all replaced. The transistor became available in a working computer in 1956, and the size of computers has been shrinking ever since (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 13). Along with smaller computers the transistors paved the way for faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient products; thanks in part to the advances made to the magnetic-core memory. The first to take advantage of this new found technology was the early supercomputer, from IBM and LARC. These supercomputers were in demand by atomic scientist because the enormous amount of data that these computers could handle. By 1965, most big business processed financial information using second generation computers. With the second generation computer came new career opportunities such as programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert. Although, transistors was and improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a lot of heat, which damaged sensitive internal parts of the computer; the quartz rock eliminated this problem (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 16). Third generation computers (1964-1971) began with Engineer Jack Kilby, with Texas Instruments, developing the IC (Integrated Circuit) in the mid 1900’s. The IC combined three components onto a small silicon disc, which was mad from the quartz. Later on scientist were able to fit even more electronic components onto a single chip, called a semiconductor. As a result, computers became smaller as more components were fitted on these chips. The third generation computer gave birth to the operating system. This allowed machines to run different programs all at once with a central program that coordinated and monitored the computer’s memory (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 16). With the fourth generation of computer’s (1971-2000) only thing to do was to go down in size. There were three major chips that helped with computer downsizing the LSI, VLSI, and ULSI. Large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. Very large integration (VLSI) could fit hundreds of thousands of components onto one chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) could fit millions of components onto chips (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 17). The size and prices of computers went down due to the fact, that so much was able to be put into an a area about half the size of a U. S. dime. Intel, which was founded in 1968, developed the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which would become standard in everyday house hold items such as microwaves, television sets and automobiles. With such condensed power allowed for a new market, everyday people. Computers were no longer just developed exclusively for large business or government contracts. It was the late 1900’s, when computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to a more general consumer. These smaller and sleek computers came with a more user-friendly software packages such as word processing and spreadsheet programs. Early company who took advantage of selling these more user friendly computers was Commodore, Radio Shack, and Apple Computers. In 1981, IBM launched its personal computer for multi-purpose use in the home, office, and schools. IBM made the personal computer even more affordable and the numbers increased rapidly within the next year. Personal computer usage more than doubled, going from 2 million in 1981 to 5. 5 million in 1982. Fast forward 10 years later, there are 65 million PC’s owned by general consumers. With the introduction of Human Computer Interface (HCI), users could now control the screen cursor using a mouse mimicking one hands movement instead of typing every instruction. Smaller computers became more powerful, especially in the workplace, were they could be linked together to share memory space, software, and communicate with each other. This was achieved using telephone lines or direct wiring called a Local Area Network (LAN) (LaMorte, C Lilly J, 2010, para. 20). The fifth generation of computers (Present and Beyond) is a generation that is in the works of some great advancements in computer technology with the utilization of computer chips. One of the major components of a computer is the chip; these are conducted of semiconductor materials and semiconductors that eventually wear out. A semiconductor is a material that is typically made of silicon and germanium; both of them are neither a good conductor of electricity nor a good insulator. These materials are then fixed to create an excess or lack of electrons (Semiconductor, 2010, para. 2). Integrated circuits grow old and die or are discontinued. This process can happen in many ways; modern chips as used in computers have millions of transistors printed on a small chip of silicon no bigger than a fingernail. Each microscopically transistor is connected to the others, on the surface of the chip, with even smaller aluminum or copper wires. Over the years, the thermal stress of turning the computer on and off can cause tiny cracks in the wires. As the computer warms up the wires can part and cause the computer to stop working. Even a few seconds of off-time can cool the system enough to allow the wires to re-connect, so your computer may work just fine for a few minutes, or hours, then after it warms up, it may fail, letting it cool off can bring it back to life for a few minutes or more (Computer Freezes and Crashes, 2010, para. 16). Of course, some chips are much more inclined to failure than others. The competition tries to gain an advantage on the market by building cheaper or faster chips; cheaper and faster means hotter and shorter-lived parts. Better quality equals higher prices; when the price goes up and nobody buys the products. Low quality products die of old age too early and they get a bad names, this causes products to not be sold. Most modern computers are constructed from the cheapest parts available. With this information being known, Intel, one of the best chip manufactures, designs their parts to be very vigorous and endure heat and malfunction. Intel was founded on July 18, 968, as Integrated Electronics Corporation. Intel Corporation is a worldwide semiconductor chip maker corporation based in Santa Clara, California, and is the worlds largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. They invented the series x86 microprocessors; these processors are found in most personal computers (Intel, 2010, para. 20). Intel along with other competing companies is predicting no more mouse or keyboards by 2020. Right now with Intel-developed sensor and brain waves scientist are hoping they can find ways to harness brain waves to operate computers. This all would be done of course with consumer’s permission. Scientists believe that consumers would want the freedom gained by using the implant. The idea may be far-fetched now but 20 years ago tell a person that it would become almost necessary to carry a computer around; that idea would have been rebutted. Look around now, people cannot leave a computer or computer device home or even in a vehicle without feeling like something is missing, an almost naked feeling. Scientists believe that consumers will grow tired of dependence of computer interface. Whether it’s fishing out accessories or even just using the hands to interact, Scientists think consumers would prefer to manipulate various devices with their brains. Currently a research team from Intel is working on decoding human brain activity. The team has used Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), these are machines that determine blood flow changes in certain areas of the brain based on what word or image the consumer is thinking of. This idea sounds farfetched but almost two years ago, scientist in the U. S. and japan announced that a monkey’s brain was used to control a humanoid robot. Scientist and the Intel team are currently working on getting to a point where it is possible to mentally type words by thinking about letters (Intel Chips in brains will control computers by 2020, 2010, para. 4). The story of the computer is amazing; to see how far technology has come is almost unreal. Evolving from the first computer the ENAIC, a huge machine that had thousands of tubes everywhere; computers are now small enough to be placed in a brief case for on the go use. Furthermore, with the everyday advancement of technology it won’t be long before farfetched ideas become a reality.

Horizontal Gene Transfer In Prokaryotes Biology Essay

Horizontal Gene Transfer In Prokaryotes Biology Essay Horizontal gene transfer is also known as lateral gene transfer and it is the phenomenon of gene transferring between prokaryotic organisms like bacteria, virus etc. HGT is a general gene transfer method among bacteria-like microorganisms (Archaea). Bacteria and Archaea possess a primitive nucleus hence they named as prokaryotes and differentiated from a eukaryote cells by lacking a perfect nuclei. In horizontal gene transfer process, an organism acquiring genetic material from other organism and do not producing the offspring of that organism. This process is different from vertical gene transfer (mainly occurring between eukaryotes) in which the incorporate gene of one organism produces offspring of the donor organism. Even distantly related bacteria can achieve a genetic feature from other bacteria by horizontal gene transfer mechanism. For example, the increased drug resistance capability of different bacterial strains. Horizontal gene transfer is occurred through three different mechanisms. Transformation, transduction and bacterial conjugation are the three mechanisms for genetic transfer in prokaryotes. Among them bacterial conjugation allows bacterial gene transfer by cell to cell contact. Transduction process can be achieved by moving DNA from one bacterium to a different one by using bacteriophages. Laboratory experiments followed by a issue in Vietnam (in 1996) due to the antibiotic chloramphenicol resistance threatening of a pathogenic bacteria called Meningococcus exhibited the chloramphenicol resistance genes similarities with a previously identified genes (Tn4451) of Clostridium perfringens. Meningococci is an entirely different bacteria from Clostridium which is a Gram positive and anaerobic one. HGT also occurs in eukaryotic protist organisms and is a major characteristic of microbial evolution. DNA sequence analysis of different prokaryotic cell genomes has revealed that such genomes usually include conserved resolved genes which are liable to disruption by DNA islands. Such DNA islands can alter comparatively during prokaryote evolution by incorporating foreign DNA due to insertion, deletion incidents. Studies about resistance genes to antibiotics make available convincing proof for wide inheritability of genes between taxonomically different microbial strains. Horizontal gene transfer can lead to the generation of new antibiotic resistant pathogens strains. This shows, gene transfer and recombination processes creating another pathogenic strains and it is an example for prokaryotic evolution by transferring genes horizontally. Antibiotic resistance is achieved through horizontal transfer process. It has proved experimentally in transformation competent bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae . Plasmid and transposon exchange of resistant acquired bacterial cell can alter the genomes of recipient organism through recombination of new resistant genes via insertion process. Insertion of the new gene in to a main chromosome is carried out by some mechanisms directed by these transposons. Role of horizontal gene transfer in bacterial evolution The researches of Joshua Lederberg about the natural evolution of pathogenic flora of the gut bacterium (E.coli K-12 strain) in 1948 afford a better understanding of prokaryotic evolution and the importance of horizontal gene transfer in evolutionary studies of bacteria. DNA transformation has been demonstrated in different bacterial species consisting Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Bacillus, Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium species. Transmissible plasmids in microorganisms Lambda and fertility factor based studies in bacteriophages by Lead Francois Jacob et al in 1958 has shown that the insertion of various genetic structures -episome of DNA- into bacterial chromosomes could alter modes of existence within the cell. Study of these aspect exhibited several occurrences of mobile DNA in a vast range of microorganisms (jumping genes) which permit F plasmid insertion and distributed horizontal gene transfer implying by bacteriophage, plasmids and mobile DNA. Conserved DNA genome sequences shows E. coli like bacteria have genomes which bears conserved backbone genes altered by foreign DNA inserts acquired during evolution by addition of genes gradually. Genomic researches propose that the past natural events of horizontal gene transfer acclaims interpretation of previous events in evolution of cells and the nature of the common ancestor of life. Lateral gene transfer between prokaryotes and multi-cellular eukaryotes The elaborated genome sequencing studies and researches have produced proof for lateral transfer of genes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. As mentioned earlier, lateral gene transfer (LGT) has an important role in the evolution of prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes. Lateral gene transfer between prokaryotes and multicellular eukaryotic organisms show a contradiction from the above statement. This is more arguable nowadays. Evidence has gathered up for bacterial symbiotic origin within genomes of eukaryotes. For example, roughly complete copies of bacterial symbiont Wolbachia genome in the host nuclear genome. Anyway, there is no proof available to understand whether the transferred copies of the genes are functional in the eukaryotic genome or not. For instance, some minute manifestations have been found for some transferred genes. Their inclination seems to be identical to that of recently transferred mitochondrial genes to the nucleus. Lack of function of such genes may lead to their degradation. Recent researches have given a better understanding about the transferred prokaryotic genes function and their expression in the eukaryotic recipient. Studies of Nikoh and Nakabachi demonstrate that the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum prone to have achieved two genes from bacterial strains. These give rise to probably been acquired without help commencing facultative derived symbionts: one on or after Wolbachia or a definite relative, the additional starting an undescribed bacterium. The authors broaden operate to facilitate these genes are both extremely articulated in the bacteriocytes, expert cells that cherish the aphids oblige core symbiont Buchnera aphidicola. Buchnera, which has a strappingly shortned genome, lacks these two genes, while other bacteriae, counting Buchneras similar free-living relatives, acquire these genes. Such two genes may be functionally indispensable to uphold Buchnera creating the nuclear inserted replicate a biting contender for existence functionally active. In addition, functionality is indirect by the opinion with the purpose of the bacterial basis is not currently offer in the aphid implying with the purpose of the assign is not recent and pseudogenization may be predictable in the absence of clear mixture for function. The aphid review is one of numerous fresh identification recitations on the side pass on in symbiosis. Rumpho et al. create substantiation for LGT amid two eukaryotes, the alga Vaucheria litorea and its predator, the sea slug Elysia chlorotica by consuming on V. Litorea. E. chlorotica obtains the algal plastids, which remain to photosynthesize for months in the sea slug. This is surprising, for the reason that the bulk of proteins required for photosynthesis are encoded on the algal nuclear genome. Rumpho et al. now speculate with the purpose of the sea slug capacity effectively assert photosynthesizing chloroplasts since it has acquired vital genes by LGT beginning the algal genome, and they grant proof for LGT of a nuclear RNA from prey to predator. They whats more exhibitions to the genetic material is articulated in the sea slug. Two additional researches pass on to an earliest LGT occurrence between mosquitoes and the endosymbiont Wolbachia pipientis. The concerns of exchange genes encoding salivary gland come out (SGS) proteins of mosquitoes, which possess a position in insect-Plasmodium interactions. Same genes have identified in two of the six sequenced Wolbachia genomes. The mechanism and role of the DNA in Wolbachia is unfamiliar, but it has diverged substantially on or after its mosquito equivalent, is not pseudogenized and is expressed. No equivalents in new prokaryotic or eukaryotic arrangement databases obtain been found. The guidance of transport (from bacterium to mosquito or commencing mosquito to bacterium) relics uncleared. Accumulating prokaryotic DNA and genome sequences expose with the aim of the swap of genetic details via together homology-dependent recombination and horizontal (lateral) RNA transport (HGT) is far new important, in magnitude and value as until that time imagined. The accepted view, with the intention of prokaryotic evolution can be tacit primarily in provisos of clonal departure and periodic selection, be obliged to be greater than before to support genetic material talk as a creative force, itself reliable for to a large extent of the copy of similarities and differences concerning prokaryotic microbes. Instead the replacement of periodic variety on genetic diversity, RNA loss and chromosomal alterations can be considered as crucial players in adaptive evolution. Role of homologous recombination The evolutionary significance of recombination measures would depend on the probability to the yield of DNA replacement proffer selective advantages. If recombination has introduced maladaptive changes, eliminated niche-specific information, or disrupted co-adapted alleles, after that recombinant adolescent want be counter selected. Therefore, ecological delineation may oblige a selective control on simplistic genetic swap in the deficiency of any mechanistic barriers forced by the inequality adjustment system. Horizontal, or lateral, RNA transport (HGT) is dissimilar equally in method and in impact. Barriers to homologous recombination do not stop its occurrence-even connecting same distinctly allied organisms-because plentiful dishonest resources existing for integrating foreign DNA addicted to the genome (Ochman, Lawrence, and Groisman 2000). HGT can occur concerning still extremely evenly connected organisms, e.g., among bacteria and plants or fungi (Heinemann and Sprague 1989; Garcia-Vallve, Romeu, and Palau 2000). The bearing of such horizontal transmission is to molecular phylogenies calculated for unlike molecules commencing the similar set of species, although regularly like-minded in broad outline (e.g., Ludwig et al. 1998 ), are no more than rarely wholly harmonizing (Gogarten et al. 1992; Gogarten 1995). A decade ago, evolutionary biologists were undecided to invoke HGT as an rationalization for these discrepancies. Now, fulfilled genome sequences submit a load of proof for HGT and highlight its perplexing sound effects in reconstructing the story of organismal evolution (Koonin et al.2001). Detection of Horizontal Gene transfering Methods for collecting signal of capability RNA replacement procedures normally trip over keen on two catagories. Phylogenetic methods seem for out of the usual run of things distributions of genes diagonally organisms and may enter the identification of genes by means of very confidential distributions, submit in cut off taxa but deffecient from directly interconnected species (Olendzenski et al. 2000; Lawrence 2001). Phylogeny-independent methods take to make something stand out genes with the intention of look as if anomalous in their present genomic context, liable sparkly long-term evolution in genomes in the corporation of dissimilar mutational biases. These methods assay nucleotide and dinucleotide frequencies (Karlin and Burge 1995; Lawrence and Ochman 1997), codon procedure bias (Mrazek et al, 2000), or patterns descented by Markov shackle analyses (Hayes and Borodovsky 1998). One strength think about the risk so as to molecular phylogenies file particularly thermophilic bacteria as the oldest bacterial lineages as they dwell in an background wherever a good number of the accessible genes are beginning Archaea and wherever they can participate a lesser amount of in HGT by way of new bacteria. Biochemical and physiological changes can and escort to genetic isolation and so alter an organisms seeming stance in grass based on DNA satisfied or sequence. For instance, may be the narrative transcriptional apparatus of the Archaea may perhaps tolerate prepared it excluding expected for them to incorporate genes on or after organisms via bacterial dictation machinery. The progression of a bacteriophage-type RNA polymerase role and its mechanisms in mitochondria provides a paradigm to demonstrate so as to strong replacements in the record machinery can take place (Cermakian et al. 1997 ; Rousvoal et al. 1998 ). As the occurrence of HGT is not doubted, present is seeming controversy in assessing its influence in microbial evolution, as well as opinions ranging commencing acute concerns not far off from its bewildering sound effects on phylogenetics (Doolittle 1999) to grave reviews which downplay any key impact (Kurland 2000 ). If one chooses a set of strongly allied bacteria (e.g., the enterobacteria) and examines phylogenies of genes pool along with them, scores of sundry genes may re-create the consistent phylogeny of species. Similarly, estimates of HGT based on uncommon gene content mean so as to an alternative of genes have reached in to these genomes just by Horizontal transferring of genes (Perna et al. 2001). Such consequences are not unbalanced by HGT having a dominant effect on the evolution of prokaryotic genomes in the elongated term. Transfers up past to the diversification of a set such as the enterobacteria can simply be detected in better phylogenetic reconstructions (Woese et al. 2000). Similarly, surveys which test phylogenetic clash as brim as nonconforming genetic material sequences as an catalog of HGT in a genome consistantly turn up a better quantity of genes with the aim of gain been issue to replacement of gene sequences (Ragan 2001; Lawrence et al. 2002) since methods identifying out of the ordinary sequences are imperfect to detecting simply contemporary transfers. HGT confounds evolutionary relationships as a rule firmly on broad timescales. Vertical inheritance-propagating mutational changes, DNA rearrangements, and added intragenomic alterations-and DNA trade by homologous recombination dominate concluded the condensed term. Moreover, HGT probable affects discrete li neages in several fashions, possibly illustrated the largest part dramatically by the least payment of HGT in the evolution of intracellular paracites undergoing genome saving (Andersson and Andersson 1999; Wernegreen et al. 2000). Conserning range and scale can perform as in effect arbiters what time merging statistics collected on or after diverse systems. Dykhuizen and Green (1991) anticipated with the purpose of homologous recombination provided taxonomic reason amongst groups of strains. Recurrent RNA exchange by homologous recombination fallout in strains in a species so as to resemble all extra supplementary than they resemble strains out of the species. HGT can afford phylogenetic reason at top taxonomic levels. In equally cases, genes in the groups are supposed to put under somebodys nose incongruent phylogenies, though the groups themselves stay behind monophyletic for a large amount genes. HGT and its impact on DNA Trees and rRNA Phylogenies A number of groups experience secondary organismal phylogeny by means of so-called gene-content vegetation (Fitz-Gibbon and bungalow 1999; Snel, Bork, and Huynen 1999; Tekaia, Lazcano, and Dujon 1999). This draw near uses the sheer existence of a gene as a character, and original dendrograms formed this way do explain the substantial analogy in the corporation of customary 16S rRNA phylogenies, reproducing the three-domain partition and the connection of the genomes starting members of the unchanged phylum. Even if other current analyses conclude so as to HGT has played a considerable function in decisive DNA matter (Snel, Bork, and Huynen 2002), these consequences dissimilarity along with a good number resolved phylogenies of specific protein-coding genes, which performance dramatic conflicts to mutually the 16S rRNA and genome satisfied trees. As the on the whole correspondence concerning gene-content trees based on entire genome sequences and 16S rRNA phylogenies would give the im pression to argue that HGT has played a some degree of part in shaping the evolution of microbial lineages. (Snel et al, 2002). Nearby is an added doable clarification for analogy involving gene-content vegetation and phylogenies based on rRNA. rRNA phylogenies force grant by gene-content analyses since rRNA genes are themselves variety and in cooperation phylogenies cogitate large-scale genetic material transfer. Intragenic recombination has been experimental in various genes, and gene-conversion procedures care for to elect copies of duplicated genes extra comparable to one any more (Gogarten and Olendzenski 1999). Acknowledgment of RNA reassignment surrounded by and in the middle of lineages restructures microbial evolution in further conduct than submission new interpretations of the imitate of microbial phylogeny. Fixed models of microbial evolution by mutational processes, pooled through the measurement of environmental tolerances in laboratory environments, imparts a regard of ecological niches as somewhat static domains, inside which organisms evolve unsurprisingly on the road to maximal fitness. For example, it is possible to calculate the organisms improve in suitability after mature for thousands of generations in glucose-limited surroundings (Papadopoulos et al. 1999). Bacteria may confined to chemostats can challenge campaign for them, inventing new niches. For example, bacterial strains which opted for glucose in take could generate microbial strains specializing in the scavenging of acetate ravage materials (Treves, Manning, and Adams 1998). Accepting evolution by HGT as a method of niche acquisition quite than alternation of place exploitation has unexpected implications. For instance, a mesophilic heterotroph force benefit door to a to hand substrate-rich but too-warm location used by moderately thermophilic autotrophs, finished acquisition commencing them of genes encoding extra thermostable versions of proteins whose labilities establish its better cyst temperature. Conceivably, the newly acquired genes are enormously poorly adapted to the heterotrophs additional cellular machinery, so with the aim of increase time in moreover milieu is dreadfully sluggish and organisms comportment these new genes cannot compete in the unique environment. They would nonetheless be the just heterotrophs at the greater temparature and can stretch to dominate there. Thus, niche acquisition can mid with the intention of scores of organisms are lucrative as of the distinctiveness of the niches they discovered recently slightly than for th e reason that of fine-tuning of their cellular machinery in relation to the utilization of to niche. The niches produced by genetic material turn over proceedings diverge extensively in their stability or novelty. selected events, reminiscent of the acquisition of an antibiotic resistance gene, let for transient exploration of a new environment, but this line may not persist finished evolutionary phase (that is, this experience desire probable not establish a clad of antibiotic-resistant bacteria distinguished by their joint aptitude to be strong to a distinct antibiotic). Additional actions are correlated in the company of the long-standing exploration of new niches, approximating the acquisition of the lac operon by E. coli or pathogenicity islands by Salmonella. Rarely, a genetic material transfer occasion may make available for the formation of radically diverse organisms so as to inhabit niches totally inaccessible by organisms relying on mutational processes isolated to explore environments. Examples of such lineages embrace the untrained plants (acquiring chloroplast by endos ymbiosis [Bonen and Doolittle 1975), methanotrophs (gaining the knack to make unfavorable cofactors by acquiring genes beginning methanogenic archaea [Chistoserdova et al. 1998), cyanobacteria, and bacteria utilizing halorhodopsin homologues as light-driven proton pumps (Beja et al. 2001). A classic replica for adaptation has been the Shifting set of scales conjecture (Wright 1982). Adaptive changes may suggest itself over and done with sequential variety of mutations, and maybe round about genome-specific, thing genes are the harvest of such characteristically Darwinian processes. But intragenic recombination can facilitate express exploration of this adaptive landscape for the reason that the valleys of low health require by no means be crossed (Bogarad and consider 1999). Variant alleles among near-optimal finesses may be recombined to bring in compound changes simultaneously, in that way avoiding the formation of suboptimal intermediate states. HGT offers a delayed scope to these models, which present finally with the intention of recombination between accessible variants, offers root to fitness peaks. Although fitness peaks may not at all be explored if they ought to be reached one genetic material at a time, many genes may be secured as bacterial operons and RNA clusters (Lawrence et al. 2001). As of an evolutionary perspective, extraction diversification is frequently viewed as an instant event, a peak afterward which genes in two groups of organisms are no longer in genetic communication. Recombination stuck between populations at such loci may give a reduced amount of fit offspring to facilitate would be counter selected. Homologous recombination can altercation alleles stuck between such populations at loci uninvolved in opening ecological delineation (Lawrence 2002). It is fine with the intention of a RNA is duplicated all age a small room divides. In undo organisms, genes are uncontrolled to evolve manifest biochemical functions. Moreover the functional coverage of the genetic material result may inflate to involve supplementary actions or selected of the DNA goods unusual functions may be spellbound if functions are not grave in this organism. If genes are not at all reintroduced keen on the matching cytoplasm and their ecological role never been recognized then, orthologous genes persist in unattached cytoplasmic contexts. If the genes are reunited in the equal cytoplasm, they are obliged to control achieved physiological uniqueness for in cooperation to persist. Reintroduction of genes interested in the equal genome is mediated by DNA transfer, with equally homologous recombination through mismatched crossing-over-here, a merodiploid strain is fashioned at the preliminary indicate of DNA exchange, and HGT, which is the a large amount dramatic way of allowing genetic material hand over to establish paralogous genes interested in the unchanged cell. In the evolutionary-theoretical approaching horizontal transfer, above all as it occurs between eukaryotes and bacteria, is an affidavit to the remarkable unity of molecular-biological mechanisms in all types of cells to consequence in the compatibility of eukaryotic and bacterial proteins with the purpose of bear evolved in their noticeable milieu for billions of years. While co-adaptation of proteins in the evolution force hold up horizontal transport of particular types of genes, workings of a lot of functional systems act to be entirely compatible. One may possibly think this bring up direct set the eukaryotic proteins expression in bacteria routinely exploited in the laboratory. This is outstandingly significant for xenologous genetic material dislocation for the reason that in these cases, the transferred, heterologous types of a gene must at once turn out to be superior, starting the standpoint of selection, to the unique type usual of the recipient species. In one case, with the purpose of eukaryotic isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase displacing the imaginative DNA in a number of bacteria, this has been convincingly explained by acquisition of antibiotic resistance. It seems apt with the purpose of these observations give common implications for xenologous genetic material displacement. In round about suitcases of acquisition of new genes, the environment of the selective gain whats more appears clear, such as for the ATP/ADP translocases acquired by intracellular scrounging bacteria, Chlamydia and Rickettsia. In largely instances, however, comparative genomics can lone place to the genes with the purpose of own maybe entered the particular genome by horizontal transfer. The biological impact of horizontal genetic material transmission choice insists on turn tentative studies by means of these genes. Dramatic differences in DNA repertoires similar in the middle of bacteria with the purpose of are in the right place to the equal evolutionary lineage, such as E. coli and Haemophilus influenzae, indicated with the aim of genome evolution possibly will not be plausibly described in vertical tumble alone. It is see-through that to a large extent of the disparity was attributable to differential genetic material loss, outstandingly in parasites, but horizontal RNA relocate is the new foremost evolutionary thing with the intention of may possibly avoid give explanation the emerging complex photo of prokaryotic genomes. The archaeal genomes accessible a chiefly stunning genomescape solidly redolent of vast horizontal RNA transfer. In arrangement and the before indications commencing phylogenetic studies, but now on the whole-genome scale, it has suit release so as to archaeal proteins divide hooked on persons genes with the purpose of were a large amount alike to their bacterial homologs and so as to looked eukaryotic. around exceptions notwithstanding, the bacterial and eukaryotic proteins in archaea were neatly on bad terms beside functional lines, by way of persons drawn in in in a row handing out screening the eukaryotic affinity, and metabolic enzymes, structural components, and a category of un-characterized proteins so as to appeared to be bacterial. for the reason that the informational workings commonly arrive on the scene to be a reduced amount of issue to horizontal DNA convey and in harmony plus the paradigm exemplar of the first part of evolution whereby eukaryotes let somebody in on a communal ancestor along with archaea, these observations boast been tentatively explained by colossal DNA replacement among archaea and bacteria. This survey has been advance supported while the genomes of two hyperthermophilic bacteria, Aquifex aeolicus and Thermotoga maritima, were sequenced. both of these genomes controlled a appreciably larger portion of archaeal gen es than any of the further bacterial genomes, establishing a plausible association amid the similarity in the lifestyles of evolutionarily distant organisms and the obvious esteem of horizontal DNA swap linking them. Also, these findings emphasized the hand out of the adaptive versus opportunistic makeup of horizontal RNA transfer. The judgment so as to the gifts of horizontal DNA remove and lineage-specific DNA debit to the DNA repertoire of prokaryotes was equivalent to with the intention of vertical crash amounted to a most important reallocate in our compassion of evolution. Indeed, it became ostensible that, in scores of cases, phylogenetic plants for distinct genes were incongruent not for the reason that of artifacts inherent in tree-construction methods but for the reason that of authentic differences in the evolutionary histories of these genes brought just about by horizontal transfer. Horizontal genetic material assign proceedings can be classified hooked on at smallest amount three marked categories along with obey to the relationships concerning the horizontally acquired RNA and homologous genes pre-existing in the recipient lineage. Acquisition of eukaryotic genes by bacteria is potentially of exacting fascination since of the probable job of such horizontally transferred genes in bacterial pathogenicity. Chlamydiae and their kins had a protracted account of parasitic or symbiotic relationships by means of eukaryotes and at a number of stages of their evolution may perhaps come up with been parasites of plants or their relatives. Summary Comparative analyses of genetic material and genome sequences point toward with the intention of chat of genetic in rank surrounded by and amid prokaryotic species, in spite of this defined, is far added hang around and all-purpose than before we thought. While homologous recombination is partial by classification disagreement and must lessen clearly including phylogenetic distance, switch over by the diverse dishonest recombination processes jointly designated HGT is not so controlled. New pact of in cooperation phenomena and their promise interaction suggests with the purpose of accepted models for prokaryotic evolution based on clonality and periodic assortment is too little to portray the manner of prokaryotic evolution at the species equal height and to tree like phylogenies are ineffective to act for the mold of prokaryotic evolution at any level. At this time an elaborated new deal to confirm with the aim of a coherent replica for prokaryotic evolution which invokes DNA or RNA handing over as its rule explanatory impose is sufficient and would encompass countless profit for diversification and adaptation. In particular, we can possibly resolve the species problem rise the valid differences in cadence and manner connecting prokaryote and higher eukaryote evolution, let straightening out of the convoluted histories of genes and genomes supersede the quest for one authentic organismal phylogeny, expound new models for distinguition of prokaryotic niches and description of adaptedness, and, at the aim of the gene, put forward new scenarios for evolution of different function. Workings of this new scrutinize as it relates to species and adaptation give by now been evidently articulated, particularly by Maynard Smith, Spratt, and Levin and their collaborators (Levin and Bergstrom 2000; Maynard Smith, Feil, and Smith 2000; Feil et al. 2001). Phylogenetic implications hold whats more been explored by Martin (1999) and Woese (2000), with others. Taking on DNA rem ove and refit promises a broad and radical revision of the prokaryotic evolutionary paradigm. This command take place as of a fusion of population genetics, molecular genetics, epidemiological and environmental genomics, microbial ecology, and molecular phylogeny, fields with the aim of be inflicted with industrial customarily in isolation beginning both other. Even though the new look at as if it were opposing to established understandings of prokaryotic evolution, in the extended run can give an approval to a synthesis with the intention of wish acknowledge DNA replace and clonality, weblike and treelike manners and adjustments and the evolution of new work by loads of modes. finding out whether frequencies of within- and between-lineage DNA switch support a classical be partial to so as to depicted in or whether vertical deterioration residue the most excellent descriptor of the description of a large amount genes larger than evolutionary time. little here are hang-up issues of m easurement and focus to overcome, promptly accumulating genome sequences make available no famine of data. Acquisition of eukaryotic genes by bacterial genomes, chiefly parasites, and symbionts, and, to a less important extent, by archaeal genomes, is one of the eminent directions of latteral genetic material flow. Apparent horizontal RNA handing over has been detected in different functional module of genes, though it is chiefly characteristic of definite categories, such as aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and unusual sign transduction systems.

Economics :: essays research papers

Island of Mocha Essay The Island of Mocha in the video is an example of a traditional economic system evolving into a market system. Every person plays a key role in this traditional system. They had fisherman, coconut collector, melon seller, lumberman, barber, doctor, preacher, brownies seller, and a chief. The Mochans got sick of trading goods all across the island just to get the things that they want or needed. The Chief decided that they would use clam shell for currency instead of trading. The first type of economic system that they movie shows is a traditional system. A traditional economy is an economic system in which the allocation of scarce resources and other economic activity is the result of ritual habit or customs. In other words a traditional economy is a barter or trade system, everybody decides WHAT WHEN and FOR WHOM. When the video first starts the Mochans had to trade all over the island to acquire what needed. After a while they had enough of trading the chief decided to switch to currency instead of trade. The economic system that they switched to is called a market economic system. A market economy is an economic system in which supply, demand, and the price system help people make decisions and allocate resources. So with a market economy you decide WHAT WHEN and FOR WHOM. In the movie Pablo the lumberman starts up a company and sells stock to allow him to be able to get all of the supplies needed. Big Daddy had triplets and need lumber to make the nursery bigger, since they switched to a market economy he had no money because the islanders would give the chief a portion of what they had. So Big Daddy had to start a tax in order to pay for the expansion of the nursery. Since all the businesses were all doing so well every business wanted to expand so the demand for lumber was great which caused a lumber shortage, the lack of resources the price when up which cause inflation all over the island. With inflation going on Big Daddy had to do something in order to stop it. The island of Mocha was going in to a recession so Big Daddy took control and put a price freeze on everything. Now the economic system turned into a command economy. A command economy is an economic system characterized by a central authority that makes most of the major economic decisions.

Different Types of Love in A Midsummer Night’s Dream Essay -- William

Different Types of Love in A Midsummer Night’s Dream by William Shakespeare A Midsummer Night’s Dream is a comedy, written in 1595 during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. This was when the society was dominated by men. During the period, England was ruled by a powerful and well respected queen. One of the many themes of the play is that of love. Many different types of love are depicted in the book. There is: Parental Love (Egeus and Hermia, Titania and Little Indian Boy), Friendly Love (Helena and Hermia, The Workmen), Unrequited Love (Helena and Demetrius), Official Love (Hermia and Demetrius), Argumentative Love (Oberon and Titania), Mad Sexual Love (Bottom and Titania),Passionate Love (Hermia and Lysander). Each type of love would be discussed to support the point that the play is full of different types of love. Parental Love This is the type of love that exists between parents and their children. A parent would go to any length for their children to show their love to them. This is shown in the love between Egeus and Hermia. Egeus wants the best for his daughter. He wants her to marry a man of his choice and does his best to make her see things his way. He declares to those present that â€Å". . . As she is mine, I shall dispose of her; Which shall be either to this gentleman Or to her death, according to our law Immediately provided in that case.† 1.1. 42-45 On the other hand, Hermia has to love her father no matter what he says or does to her. Children are brought up to respect their parents and love them. Theseus tells Hermia â€Å"What say you, Hermia? Be advised fair maid. To you your father... ...ready to jump into bed with him. Today, many people would find this disgusting and outrageous. But it is fiction, so anything can happen. Especially when you are under a magical spell. Passionate Love â€Å"So will I grow, so live, so die my lord, Ere I will yield my virgin patent up Unto his lordship, whose unwished yoke My soul consents not to give sovereignty.† 1.1.79-82 Hermia does not love Demetrius. She would rather die or become a nun, than marry him. She only has eyes for one man, Lysander. And he feels exactly the same way about her. When they are together, you can see that the love between them is really strong. So she is quite surprised when he is suddenly in love with Helena. As a result of the â€Å"Love Juice†, Lysander falls in love with Helena, and becomes infatuated and obsessive.

Network factors :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The shape of a network can take many different forms and these topologies can be connected by a variety of means. The differing topologies are Mesh, Bus, Ring and Star and each one will be examined and the advantages and disadvantages explored. These networks can be connected via Ethernet, Token Ring, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) or wireless. Each of the connection methods will also be analyzed and the differences will be explained.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The term network topology refers to the physical layout of computers, cables, and other components that make up a network. The choice of one topology over another is important for the network professional and will have an impact on the type of equipment the network needs, the capabilities of the equipment, the growth of the network and the way the network is managed. The different types of topologies each require different communication methods and these will also have an influence on the network.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first topology to be discussed is the bus topology. It consists of devices that are connected to a common shared cable. The bus topology is the simplest and most common method of networking computers with the computers set up in a straight line. The single cable that feeds all of the computers is known as the trunk (also called backbone or segment) and connects all of the network computers in a single line. The computers communicate by addressing data to a certain computer and sending out the data onto the cable via electronic signals. The signal is sent out on the bus and only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original accepts the information. A disadvantage of the bus topology is that only one computer can send data at a time and this limits the number of computers that can be on the network. The more computers on the bus, the more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and slow down network performance. Another disadvan tage is that if the trunk breaks or is becomes un-terminated, the network will cease to function since the signal will bounce. The advantage to a bus network is that if one computer on the bus fails, it will not affect the others on the bus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A star topology has cable pieces from each computer connected to a central hub. The signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to call computers on the network.

Law of Wills in India

Property Law Research Paper LAW OF WILLS IN INDIA Submitted By-Ishani Mehta BA. LLB -2011 Section-A (22 November, 2012) CONTENTS- * Definition * Key Terms * Different types of wills * Essential Clauses of a will * Restrictions or Limitations for making of a will under The Indian Succession Act 1925 * Registration of a will * Property, which can be, disposed of by Will * Principals of rate able abatement in case heirs do not give consent. * Probate of a will * Muslim laws on wills in India * Revocation of a will * Revocation of a will by Muslims * Codicil * Who can be a devisee under a will?Definition – Will is the legal declaration of a person’s intention which he wishes to be performed after his death and once the Will is made by the testator it can only be revoke during his lifetime. OR Will means the legal declaration of the intention of a testator with respect to his property, which he desires to, take effect after/*appointment of Executor by the testator, the Court may appoint a person called ‘Administrator' to execute thee will. OR The term ‘Will’ is defined under ‘Section: 2(h)’ of The â€Å"Indian Succession Act, 1925†, means the legal declaration of the intention of a testator with espect to his property which he desires to be carried into effect after his death. A testator is authorized with a power to appoint any person as beneficiary of his Will whereas ‘Section: 5’ deals with the law regulating succession to deceased person’s moveable and immovable property. My interpretation of a will- A Will or testament as it is often called is a legal declaration by which the testator names one or more persons to manage his/her estate and provides for the transfer of his/her property at the time of death. A Will can be made by anyone who is above 21 years of age in India.It can be seen as a statement made by a testator in the written form stating the manner in which his estate/property mus t be distributed after his death. A Will being a testamentary document comes into effect after the death of the testator and if the person dies without writing any Will then he/she is said to be have died intestate. The person in whose favour the testator bestows the benefits is called the beneficiary or legatee. A Will is otherwise known as a Testament. KEY TERMS- * Codicil- Codicil is an instrument math in relation to will. It is a part of the will. Abatement of Legacies- When a testator bequeaths more than one third of the property, and the heirs refuse to give consent, it is to be adjusted accordingly. * Lapse of Legacy-  If the Legatee does not survive, the bequest (Property under will) is distributed as if there is no will. DIFFERENT TYPES OF WILLS- A testator who has right to make a Will for the future benefits of his family members which will take effect after his death, the there are certain types of Wills which has to be looked into: 1. Privileged ‘Wills’:  As it can be understood from the word privilege provided to certain persons.A privileged Will is one which is made by any soldier, airman, navy persons, mariner who are willing to dispose of their estate during their course of employment. A soldier includes officers and all other rank officers of service but does not include a civilian engineer employed by the army, having no military status. A soldier while making an instrument of ‘Will’ must have attained the age of 18 years and where a will made by the soldier is in the oral form, will be valid only for a month though a written Will always remain operative.A privileged Will may be revoked by the testator by an unprivileged Will or codicil, or buy any act expressing an intention to revoke it and accompanied by such formalities as would be sufficient to give validity to a privileged Will, or by the burning, tearing or otherwise destroying the same by the testator. 2. Unprivileged ‘Wills’:  Wills execut ed according to the provisions of ‘Section 63’ of the ‘Indian Succession Act, 1925’ are called Unprivileged Wills.An unprivileged Will is one which is created by every testator not being a soldier, airman, mariner so employed. An unprivileged Will like Codicil can be revoked by the testator only by another Will or by some writing declaring an intention to revoke the same and to be executed in the manner in which an unprivileged Will can be executed under the Act or by burning, tearing or destroying of the same by the testator or by some other person in his presence and by his directions with the intention of revoking the same. ESSENTIAL CLAUSES OF WILLS-There are certain characteristics which should be included in the instrument of will such as:- †¢ The Name of the Testator:  The name of the testator should be mentioned accurately without any error in initials, spelling or grammatical mistake so that it will not affect the instrument of Will. The nam e of the testator can also be clarified by looking into his birth certificate or any school certificates. †¢ Right to Appoint Legatee:  The testator is having absolute right to appoint any person as a legatee or beneficiary of a Will and legatee should execute the Will carefully and in accordance with the law. To Take Effect after Death:  A testator who is having power to make the Will during his lifetime, but it will take effect only after his death. A gift made by a person during his lifetime and will take effect during his lifetime, cannot be considered as a Will. †¢ Revocability under the Law:  In general a Will made by the testator can be revoke at any time during his lifetime and testator can choose any other person as his legatee. There may be chances where a testator wishes to bring some alterations in the Will then he can make some necessary amendments in the prepared Will which is otherwise called as Codicil.A third party can not file a civil suit against t he testator on the ground of cancellation of the Will. A Will made by the testator may be irrevocable in some cases where an agreement is entered into contrary to the Will, may bind the testator. †¢ Intention of the Testator supreme:  The testator of the Will has right to revoke Will at any time which can only be proved by the intention of the testator that whether he is intending to revoke the previous testamentary instruments made by him or he can state in his Will that ‘This is my last Will’ then it can be presumed that all the earlier testamentary instruments has been revoked. The Declaration to be ‘Last Will’:  A person as testator has power to make declaration of Will innumerable times but it is always the last will of testator which will prevail. The words â€Å"I declare this to be my last will† need not be stated in the instrument of the Will. Once the Will is made by the testator Inserting of words ‘Last and Only will’ at the time of death it can be presumed that all the previous Wills will get revoked and fresh Will has to be effected. Lost Subsequent ‘Will’:  Mere loss of the original Will does not operate a revocation but it has to be inferring by the stringent evidence to prove its revocability and a testator must show the genuine reasons for the loss of the Will. Once it is proved that an original will is lost then ‘Subsequent Will’ will be valid. Restrictions or Limitations for making of a will under The Indian Succession Act 1925 * Transfer to person by particular description, which is not in existence at testator's death. * Transfer to person not in existence at testator's death subject to prior bequest. Transfer made to create perpetuity. * Transfer to a class some of whom may come under above rules. * Transfer to take effect on failure of prior Transfer. * Effect of direction for accumulation. Registration of ‘Wills’: It is not mandatory for a wi ll to be registered but it is better if a will is registered because it has few advantages. * It can be proved easily. * Its authenticity cannot be questioned. * A certified copy is always available. * When- It can be registered in any registering offices in India at any time during the life time of the Will maker.The copy of the will can be obtained by the testator at any point during his/her life time and after his/her death that copy can be obtained by others by providing the proof of death of the testator. * Expenses- Will has an advantage that the cost incurred in making of it is negotiable. The estimated amount of making a will is 200-300 Rupees. Any alteration in will whether addition or deletion or rectification can be done through a document called Codicil and this will not even require the stamp duty. Note- A bill can be registered even after the death of the testator which may help the beneficiaries of the will to obtain bequeathed properties without hassles. According to the Section: 18 of the ‘Registration Act, 1908’ the registration of a Will is not compulsory. Once a Will is registered, it is strong legal evidence that the proper parties had appeared before the registering officers and the latter had attested the same after. The process of registration begins when a Will instrument is deposited to the registrar or sub-registrar of jurisdictional area by the testator himself or his authorized agent.Once the scrutiny of Will instrument is done by the registrar and registrar is satisfied with all the documents then registrar will make the entry in the Register-Book by writing year, month, day and hour of such presentation of the document and will issue a certified copy to the testator. In case if registrar refuses to order Will to be registered then testator himself or his authorized agent can institute a civil suit in a court of law and court will pass decree of registration of Will if court is satisfied with the evidence produced by the plaintiff.A suit can only be filed within 30 days after the refusal of registration by the registrar. If the testator willing to withdraw the Will after the process of registration then a sufficient reason has to be given to registrar, if satisfied he will order for the registration of Will. Property, which can be, disposed off by Will Any movable or immovable property can be disposed off by a will by its owner. Under Mitakshara Law, a Hindu coparcener could not dispose off his undivided coparcenary property by will, even if other coparceners consented to it.But section 30 of Hindu Succession Act, 1956 provides that any Hindu may dispose off by will or other testamentary disposition any property, which is capable of being so, disposed of by him in accordance with law. The interest of a male Hindu in a Mitakshara coparcenary property is deemed to be property capable of being disposed off by him. PROBATE OF A WILL- It is the copy of the will which is given to the executor together with a certificate granted under the seal of the court and signed, by one of the registrars, certifying that the will has been proved.The application for probate shall be made by petition along with copy of last Will and testament of the deceased to the court of competent jurisdiction. The copy of the will and grant of administration of the testator’s estate together, form the probate. It is conclusive evidence of the validity and due execution of the will and of the testamentary capacity of the testator. A probate is obtained to authenticate the validity of the will and it is the only proper evidence of the executor’s appointment.The grant of probate to the executor does not confer upon him any title to the property which the testator himself had no right to dispose off which did belong to the testator and over which he had a disposing power with a grant of administration to the estate of the testator. Probate proceedings cannot be referred to Arbitration. The probat e court (whether it is the District Court or High Court) has been granted and conferred with exclusive jurisdiction to grant probate of a Will of the deceased. Muslim laws on wills in IndiaA Will under Mohammedan Law is called as Wasiyat, which means a moral exhortation or a declaration in compliance with moral duty of every Muslim to make arrangements for the distribution of his estate or property. The Mohammedan Law restricts a Muslim person to bequeath his whole property in a will and allows him to bequeath 1/3rd of his estate by writing will, which will take effect after his death. A will may be in the form of oral or written if the will is in writing need not be signed if signed need not be attested.Acc to Shia Law if served bequests are made through a will, priority should be given to determination by the order in which they are mentioned a bequest by way of will. A Will Can be made by a person who is of sound mind, major and possessing a absolute title, in favour of a person who is capable of holding property except unborn persons and heirs. The revocation of will is possible only if the subsequent Will is made by the testator. A Muslim person who is allowed to bequeath 1/3rd of his estate, he can exceed its limit on testamentary power of 1/3rd to 1/4th in case where heirs’ gives consent or only heir is husband or wife.Revocation of a will A Will is liable to be revoked or altered by the maker of it at any time when he is competent to dispose of his property by Will. A Will can be revoked by testator of the Will at any point of time which can be classified into two aspects such as:- †¢ Voluntary Revocation:  A testator who wishes to revoke his original Will which is made by him on a specified date and time, he can make revocation of the will himself by writing a subsequent Will or codicil duly executed and by destruction of the previous will, means by burning, tearing, destroying or striking out the signature of the original instrument of a Will. Involuntary Revocation:  According to the Section: 69 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 which deals with revocation of will by the testator’s marriage, however this provision does not apply to Hindus. Section 57 of the Indian Succession Act clearly states that a testator’s marriage will not make the Will invalid. Revocation of a will by Muslims The testator may revoke his will at any time either expressly or impliedly. The express revocation may be either oral or in writing.The will can be revoked impliedly by testator transferring or destroying completely altering the subject matter of the will or by giving the same property to someone else by another will. Codicil Codicil means an instrument made in relation to a will and explaining, altering or adding to its dispositions and shall be deemed to form part of the will. The codicil is generally made to make slight changes in the will, which has already been executed.A codicil cannot alter a will more than wha t is necessary to carry out the testator's intention as evidenced by the will and the codicil. Codicil means an instrument made in relation to a will and explaining, altering or adding to its dispositions and shall be deemed to form part of the will. The codicil is generally made to make slight changes in the will, which has already been executed. A codicil cannot alter a will more than what is necessary to carry out the testator's intention as evidenced by the will and the codicil.Who can be a devisee under a will? Any person capable of holding property can be a devisee under a will and therefore a minor, lunatic, a corporation, a Hindu deity and other juristic person can be a devisee. Sections 112 to 117 of Indian Succession Act, 1925 put some restrictions on the disposition of property by will in certain cases. Dispositions of property by will in some cases have been declared void.